Academic Foundation
Note-making is one of the most fundamental yet frequently misunderstood skills in higher education. It demands active engagement with ideas, critical evaluation of sources, and the construction of meaningful connections across different topics and modules.
Throughout your undergraduate degree, regardless of your discipline (whether you are studying history, engineering, psychology, or business), the ability to create effective notes will directly influence your academic performance, critical thinking development, and long-term retention of knowledge.
Unlike the passive recording of information you may have practised at school, university-level note-making demands active engagement with ideas, critical evaluation of sources, and the construction of meaningful connections across different topics and modules.
This guide explores note-making as a sophisticated academic practice that extends far beyond simply writing down what you hear or read. By developing effective note-making strategies, you will enhance your understanding, improve your recall, and produce higher-quality assessed work throughout your undergraduate journey.
The terms "note-taking" and "note-making" are often used interchangeably, but understanding the difference between them is essential for academic success.
Definition: Relatively passive process of recording information as it is presented
Characteristics:
Purpose: Ensuring information is captured for later reference
Definition: Active, transformative process involving critical engagement with information
Characteristics:
Purpose: Knowledge construction and active learning
Research Evidence
Research consistently demonstrates that active engagement with material leads to deeper learning and better retention than passive recording. When you make notes rather than simply take them, you strengthen understanding and memory.
This distinction matters because when you make notes, you are forced to think about the material, make decisions about what is important, and express ideas in your own words. All these processes strengthen understanding and memory.
Throughout this guide, we focus on note-making as the goal, recognising that initial note-taking may be necessary but should always be followed by the active transformation of those notes into meaningful, personalised learning resources.
Cornell Framework
The Cornell Method divides each page into three distinct sections, each serving a specific purpose in the learning process: Note-Taking Area, Cue Column, and Summary Section.
The Cornell Method, developed by Walter Pauk at Cornell University, stands as one of the most widely recommended structured approaches to note-making. This system's power lies in its built-in review and recall mechanisms.
Purpose: Record information during lectures or while reading
Content:
Technique: Capture important information concisely using abbreviations, symbols, and your own phrasing rather than verbatim transcription
Timing: Completed after initial note-taking, ideally within 24 hours
Content:
Example: If notes discuss photosynthesis, cue column might contain "What are the stages?" or "How does light affect rate?"
Purpose: Synthesise entire page into brief, coherent summary
Length: Two to four sentences
Benefits:
Beyond the Cornell Method, several other note-making approaches deserve consideration, each offering different strengths for particular situations.
Structure: Radial, non-linear with central concept branching outward
Best for:
Features: Leverages both verbal and visual processing
Structure: Hierarchical with headings, subheadings, and indented bullet points
Best for:
Features: Shows relationships between main ideas and supporting details
Structure: Boxes, arrows, and decision points representing processes
Best for:
Features: Visual representation of logical progressions
Structure: Individual notes with unique identifiers and explicit links
Best for:
Features: Emphasises interconnectedness and emergent thinking
Key Principle: Experienced note-makers often adapt and combine techniques. The important aspect is to move beyond passive recording toward active engagement with ideas.
Inclusive Approach
Students process information in different ways. Effective note-making accommodates varied preferences whilst employing multiple modes often strengthens learning.
Rather than restricting individuals to fixed "learning styles" (a concept lacking robust empirical support), we recognise that people may have preferences for certain modes of information processing.
Characteristics: Process information effectively through words and text
Strategies:
Suitable Methods: Cornell Method, Linear/Outline approaches
Characteristics: Think in images, patterns, and spatial relationships
Strategies:
Suitable Methods: Mind mapping, enhanced Cornell with visuals
Characteristics: Process information most effectively through sound and spoken language
Strategies:
Enhancement: Transform recordings into written notes
Research Insight: Using multiple processing modes (combining verbal, visual, and auditory elements) often produces the strongest learning outcomes. Rather than limiting yourself to one approach, experiment with combining techniques.
Effective note-making serves a purpose far beyond creating a reference document; it is a tool for encoding information into long-term memory and facilitating retrieval during assessments.
Concept: Transforming lecture content into your own notes engages "elaborative rehearsal"
Benefits:
Technique: Using cue column to test yourself without looking at detailed notes
Implementation:
Schedule: Review material at increasing intervals over time
Timeline:
Your notes should evolve over time. As you progress through your module:
Research Foundation: This practice of interleaving enhances both understanding and retention by forcing your brain to continuously distinguish between concepts and make connections.
University-Level Practice
The distinction between descriptive and critical note-making represents the most important difference between school-level and university-level academic practice.
Critical note-making involves active evaluation, questioning, synthesis, and analysis of information. You move beyond asking "What is being said?" to asking "How is this argument constructed?" and "What evidence supports these claims?"
Approach: Capturing information as presented
Activities:
Limitation: Necessary as foundation but limits intellectual development if used exclusively
Approach: Active evaluation and analysis of information
Activities:
Outcome: Transforms note-making into academic dialogue with material
"Social media use has been linked to depression and anxiety in teenagers (Johnson, 2020)."
"Johnson (2020) reports correlational evidence linking social media use to depression/anxiety in teenagers. However: (1) Correlation ≠ causation—could pre-existing mental health issues drive social media use? (2) Study used self-reported data—reliability concerns. (3) Focused only on Instagram—other platforms may differ. (4) Contradicts Thompson's (2021) longitudinal study showing no significant effect when controlling for socioeconomic factors. Need to explore moderating variables."
Development Strategy: Start by adding just one critical question to each page of notes. During reading, pause after each section to write a one-sentence critical reflection. Over time, critical engagement becomes automatic.
The quality of your note-making directly manifests in your essays, reports, presentations, and examinations. Assessors can readily distinguish between work based on superficial, descriptive notes and work emerging from critical, well-synthesised note-making.
High-quality notes: Written in your own words, lead to effective paraphrasing
Poor notes: Verbatim copies risk inadvertent plagiarism
Benefit: When notes contain your phrasing and explanations, source integration becomes straightforward and authentic
Valued skill: Synthesising ideas from multiple sources rather than discussing each separately
Effective notes: Contain cross-references, comparisons, and integrated themes
Poor approach: Isolated notes for each reading produce list-like assignments
Foundation: Critical commentary in notes provides basis for analytical assignments
Source: Marginal questions and evaluations become critical perspectives in essays
Elevation: Transforms work from descriptive to genuinely analytical
Clear indication: Which evidence supports which claims
Easy selection: Appropriate examples for assignment writing
Accurate referencing: Full bibliographic details prevent citation problems
Assessment Connection: The practice of distinguishing main arguments from supporting details in your notes translates directly into constructing well-supported paragraphs in your assignments. Recording citation details during note-making prevents common referencing problems.
Undergraduate students face several recurring challenges in developing effective note-making practices. Understanding these challenges and their solutions can significantly improve your note-making effectiveness.
Challenge: Keeping pace with lecturers whilst maintaining note quality
Solutions:
Challenge: Managing handwritten lecture notes with digital readings and online resources
Solutions:
Challenge: Creating notes without sufficient bibliographic information
Prevention strategies:
Problem: Over-highlighting (often 80% of text) renders the practice meaningless
Better approaches:
Regardless of your discipline or current note-making habits, you can improve through deliberate practice and systematic implementation. These ten practical steps will help you develop sophisticated note-making abilities.
Development Mindset: Treat note-making as a skill that improves with practice. After each assessment, reflect on whether your notes adequately prepared you. What worked? What needs improvement? Continuously adjust your approach based on experience and feedback.
This section provides a comprehensive list of all key terms used throughout this note-making guide. Hover over any term to see its definition.
note-taking note-making Cornell Method mind mapping linear note-making flowcharting Zettelkasten method elaborative rehearsal active recall spaced repetition interleaving descriptive note-making critical note-making synthesis verbal processing visual processing auditory processing